Schizophrenia is a severe chronic disease that affects approximately 1 % of the world's population. Those who suffer this disease have serious deficits in social cognition (DSC), deficits that have been observed in first psychotic episode patients and first-degree relatives. The DSC determine the long-term prognosis in this disease and are susceptible to rehabilitation if they are detected early. Only recent studies have characterized deficits of social cognition in subjects with a high risk of developing chronic psychosis. These subjects present a unique opportunity to modify their social insertion and medical prognosis, as they have not been affected by the chronicity of the disease and present a milder symptomatology than in residual stages. This paper aims to make a review about how the DSC are present in schizophrenia from its prodromal stages and about its importance in the early detection of this disease.

Resumen La esquizofrenia es una enfermedad crónica, severa y que afecta aproximadamente al 1% de la población mundial. Pacientes con esta enfermedad presentan severos déficits en la cognición social (DCS). Estos déficits han sido observados en pacientes de primer episodio y familiares de primer grado. Los DCS determinan el pronóstico a largo plazo en esta enfermedad y son susceptibles de rehabilitación si es que se detectan precozmente. Solo recientemente se han caracterizado los déficits de la cognición social en sujetos de alto riesgo de desarrollar psicosis crónica. Estos sujetos presentan una oportunidad única para modificar la inserción social y modificar el pronóstico, pues no han sido afectados mayormente por la cronicidad de la enfermedad y presentan una sintomatología más leve que en etapas residuales. El presente trabajo pretende realizar una revisión de cómo los DCS están presentes desde etapas prodrómicas de la esquizofrenia y su importancia en la detección precoz de esta enfermedad.

Background:the impact of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) on lung function is well known and associated with a reduction in pulmonary ventilation. Moreover, the use of highly active antiretroviral therapy has been associated with mitochondrial dysfunction and decreased muscle strength. However, there is scarce information about the factors associated with inspiratory muscle weakness in these patients.Objective:the purpose of the present study was to investigate the factors associated with inspiratory muscle weakness in patients with HIV-1.Methods:two-hundred fifty seven patients with HIV-1 were screened and categorized into two groups: (1) IMW+ (n= 142) and (2) IMW-(n= 115). Lung function (FEV1, FVC and FEV1 /FVC), maximum inspiratory pressure, distance on the six-minute walk test and CD4 cell count were assessed.Results:the mean duration of HIV infection was similar in the two groups. The following variables were significantly different between groups: mean duration of highly active antiretroviral therapy (81 ± 12 in IMW+ versus 38 ± 13 months in IMW-; p= 0.01), and CD4 cell count (327 ± 88 in IMW+ versus 637 ± 97 cells/mm3 in IMW-; p= 0.02). IMW+ presented reduced lung function (FEV1, FVC, FEV1/FVC).Conclusion:patients with IMW+ had lower distance on the six-minute walk test in comparison to the IMW- group. The duration of highly active antiretroviral therapy, distance traveled on the 6MWT and CD4 count were determinants of IMW in patients with HIV.

BACKGROUND:Interferential electrical stimulation (IES), which may be linked to greater penetration of deep tissue, may restore blood flow by sympathetic nervous modulation; however, studies have found no association between the frequency and duration of the application and blood flow. We hypothesized that 30 min of IES applied to the ganglion stellate region might improve blood flow redistribution.OBJECTIVES: The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of IES on metaboreflex activation in healthy individuals.METHOD: Interferential electrical stimulation or a placebo stimulus (same protocol without electrical output) was applied to the stellate ganglion region in eleven healthy subjects (age 25±1.3 years) prior to exercise. Mean blood pressure (MBP), heart rate (HR), calf blood flow (CBF) and calf vascular resistance (CVR) were measured throughout exercise protocols (submaximal static handgrip exercise) and with recovery periods with or without postexercise circulatory occlusion (PECO+ and PECO -, respectively). Muscle metaboreflex control of calf vascular resistance was estimated by subtracting the area under the curve when circulation was occluded from the area under the curve from the AUC without circulatory occlusion.RESULTS:At peak exercise, increases in mean blood pressure were attenuated by IES (p<0.05), and the effect persisted under both the PECO+ and PECO- treatments. IES promoted higher CBF and lower CVR during exercise and recovery. Likewise, IES induced a reduction in the estimated muscle metaboreflex control (placebo, 21±5 units vs.IES, 6±3, p<0.01).CONCLUSION: Acute application of IES prior to exercise attenuates the increase in blood pressure and vasoconstriction during exercise and metaboreflex activation in healthy subjects.

Aquaculture is an alternative for the production of high-quality, low-cost protein, particularly in developing countries with a limited food supply. In rural areas, the availability of alternative inputs is key to improving fish farming production, especially if these inputs are unprocessed. The leaves of tree spinach (Cnidoscolus chayamansa), a bush that grows in Mexico and Central and South America, are one such option. In this work, juvenile tilapia (7-4.5 g) survival, growth rates, and food conversion rates were studied during two seasons (warm and cold), substituting 25 and 50% of the balanced feed rations with raw tree spinach leaves (ad libitum). The experimental design was completely random, with two treatments and one control (00% of the balanced feed ration); three replicates were done in each season. The densities were 36 fish m-per replica in the cold season and 44 fish m-3 per replica in the warm season. The weight gain in the treatments with 50 and 75% balanced feed and tree spinach leaves was similar to that of the control group in both seasons. The cold season adversely affected survival, weight gain, and feed conversion rates in all treatments, but the warm season did not. When tree spinach leaves were included in the tilapia diet, the feed conversion rate for the balanced feed was reduced from 9.7 to 33.62% in the cold season and from 5.38 to 40.23% in the warm season. The results show that the use of locally available complementary inputs such as tree spinach leaves may favor the development of small-scale tilapia cultures in the tropics.

La acuicultura es una alternativa para la producción de proteína de alta calidad a bajo precio, particularmente en países en desarrollo y desabasto de alimentos. En zonas rurales, la disponibilidad de insumos alternativos es clave para mejorar la producción en el cultivo de peces, sobre todo si dichos insumos se usan en forma cruda. Una opción son las hojas de chaya (Cnidoscolus chayamansa), arbusto que crece en México, Centroamérica y Sudamérica. En este estudio se evaluó durante dos épocas climáticas (cálida y fría) la supervivencia, tasa de crecimiento y tasa de conversión alimenticia de juveniles de tilapia (7-4,5 g), al sustituir parcialmente la ración de alimento balanceado (25 y 50%) con hojas crudas de chaya (ad libitum), en un diseno experimental completamente al azar, con dos tratamientos y un control (00% de la ración a base de alimento balanceado), con tres réplicas cada uno por época climática. Las densidades fueron de 36 peces m-3 por réplica en la época fría y de 44 peces m-3 por réplica en la época cálida. Los resultados indican que los tratamientos con 50 y 75% de alimento balanceado y chaya, en ambas épocas climáticas, tuvieron una ganancia de peso similar a la de los organismos que se alimentaron con la dieta control. Durante la época fría se observaron efectos adversos en la supervivencia, peso ganado y tasa de conversión alimenticia en todos los tratamientos, lo cual no ocurrió en la época cálida. Al incluir hojas de chaya en la dieta de las tilapias, la tasa de conversión alimenticia de alimento balanceado se redujo de 9,7 a 33,62% en la época fría y de 5,38 a 40,23% en la época cálida. Los resultados muestran que el uso de insumos complementarios disponibles regionalmente como la chaya, puede favorecer el desarrollo de cultivos de tilapia a pequena escala en los trópicos.

CONTEXTUALIZAÇÃO: A insuficiência cardíaca (IC) acarreta alterações histológicas, metabólicas e funcionais dos músculos inspiratórios. A fraqueza dos músculos inspiratórios, que ocorre em 30% a 50% dos pacientes com IC, associa-se com a redução da capacidade funcional, prejuízos para a qualidade de vida e piora no prognóstico desses indivíduos. OBJETIVOS: Discutir os mecanismos fisiopatológicos que potencialmente explicam o papel da musculatura inspiratória na limitação ao exercício, abordando-se os reflexos que controlam a ventilação e a circulação durante o exercício. MÉTODO: Foram realizadas pesquisas na base de dados PUBMED, utilizando os termos inspiratory muscles, inspiratory muscle training, metaborreflex e chemoreflex e incluindo estudos publicados desde 1980. RESULTADOS: A fraqueza muscular inspiratória está relacionada com intolerância ao exercício e com exacerbação do quimiorreflexo e do metaborreflexo inspiratório na IC. O metaborreflexo inspiratório pode ser atenuado pelo treinamento muscular inspiratório ou pelo treinamento aeróbico, melhorando o desempenho ao exercício. CONCLUSÕES: Os pacientes com IC podem apresentar alterações da função muscular inspiratória associadas com hiperatividade quimiorreflexa e metaborreflexa inspiratória, as quais podem agravar a intolerância ao exercício.

BACKGROUND: Heart failure induces histological, metabolic and functional adaptations in the inspiratory muscles. This inspiratory muscle weakness, which occurs in 30% to 50% of the heart failure patients, is associated with reduction in the functional capacity, reduction in the quality of life and with a poor prognosis in these individuals. OBJECTIVES: The objective of this review was to discuss the pathophysiological mechanisms that may explain the role of the inspiratory muscles in the exercise limitation with focus in the reflexes that control the ventilation and the circulation during the exercise. METHOD: We performed searches in the PUBMED database using the terms "inspiratory muscles", "inspiratory muscle training", "metaboreflex" and chemoreflex" and including studies published since 1980. RESULTS: Inspiratory muscle weakness is associated with exercise intolerance and with an exaggerated inspiratory chemoreflex and metaboreflex in heart failure. The inspiratory metaboreflex may be attenuated by the inspiratory muscle training or by the aerobic exercise training improving the exercise performance. CONCLUSIONS: Patients with heart failure may present changes in the inspiratory muscle function associated with inspiratory chemoreflex and metaboreflex hyperactivity, which exacerbate the exercise intolerance.

The aim of the present study was to characterize the interactions of antagonist G (H-Arg-D-Trp-NmePhe-D-Trp-Leu-Met-NH 2)-targeted sterically stabilized liposomes with the human variant small cell lung cancer (SCLC) H82 cell line and to evaluate the antiproliferative activity of encapsulated doxorubicin against this cell line. Variant SCLC tumors are known to be more resistant to chemotherapy than classic SCLC tumors. The cellular association of antagonist G-targeted (radiolabeled) liposomes was 20-30-fold higher than that of non-targeted liposomes. Our data suggest that a maximum of 12,000 antagonist G-targeted liposomes were internalized/cell during 1-h incubation at 37ºC. Confocal microscopy experiments using pyranine-containing liposomes further confirmed that receptor-mediated endocytosis occurred, specifically in the case of targeted liposomes. In any of the previously mentioned experiments, the binding and endocytosis of non-targeted liposomes have revealed to be negligible. The improved cellular association of antagonist G-targeted liposomes, relative to non-targeted liposomes, resulted in an enhanced nuclear delivery (evaluated by fluorimetry) and cytotoxicity of encapsulated doxorubicin for incubation periods as short as 2 h. For an incubation of 2 h, we report IC50 values for targeted and non-targeted liposomes containing doxorubicin of 5.7 ± 3.7 and higher than 200 µM doxorubicin, respectively. Based on the present data, we may infer that receptors for antagonist G were present in H82 tumor cells and could mediate the internalization of antagonist G-targeted liposomes and the intracellular delivery of their content. Antagonist G covalently coupled to liposomal drugs may be promising for the treatment of this aggressive and highly heterogeneous disease.